Empiricism emphasizes observation and experimentation to collect evidence and inform conclusions.

Reasoning from a general principle to make predictions about specific cases.

Reasoning from specific observations to formulate general principles or hypotheses.

Observations lead to hypotheses (induction), which are then tested and predictions derived (deduction), creating a feedback loop.

It should be testable, specific, measurable, and falsifiable.

A testable explanation for an observation that can be supported or refuted through experimentation.

Null hypothesis (H0): predicts no effect or relationship. Alternative hypothesis (Ha): predicts an effect or relationship exists.

• Pure causation: A causes B directly.
• Reverse causation: B causes A.
• Common causation: C causes both A and B.
• Cyclic causation: A and B influence each other in a feedback loop.
• Indirect causation: A affects B through one or more intermediates.
• Coincidence: A and B appear related by chance.

To test hypotheses and determine causal relationships under controlled conditions.

By controlling variables and systematically observing the effects of the experimental treatment.

A repeated instance of the same experiment to ensure results are reliable and not due to chance.

The variable being manipulated to test its effect on the dependent variable.

Control group: not exposed to the experimental treatment; Experimental group: receives the treatment to observe its effect.

An experiment where all variables except the experimental variable are kept constant to isolate the effect of the treatment.

To account for psychological or procedural effects unrelated to the treatment itself.

Reduces bias by preventing participants or researchers from knowing which group receives the treatment.

Negative control: shows what happens without treatment; Positive control: ensures the experimental setup can produce a positive result.

Independent variable: manipulated by the experimenter. Dependent variable: measured to see the effect of the manipulation.

A natural experiment occurs in real-world conditions without direct manipulation; controlled experiments manipulate variables in a lab or field setting.

Central tendency (mean, median, mode) and variability (range, standard deviation).

Mean, median, mode.

The extent to which data points differ from each other and from the central value.

It quantifies how spread out the data points are around the mean.

More replicates increase reliability and reduce uncertainty in estimates of variability.

Statistical confidence is the likelihood that a result is reliable; smaller standard deviation increases confidence.

Descriptive: summarize data; Inferential: make predictions or test hypotheses based on data.

They determine whether observed differences are statistically significant and support or reject the hypothesis.